Notes: By the 1970s, the South Korean Army and Marines had a critical tank problem. Not only was their tank force too small to deal with a North Korean Invasion, it’s tank force consisted primarily of M-48A3K and M-48A5K (domestically-upgraded versions of the M-48 tank), as well as a smattering of M-4A3E8 tanks left over from US stocks after World War 2 and the Korean War. These tanks could not deal with the large advantage in armor the North Korean Army possessed, including a large number of T-62s.

The US was unable to send the South Koreans M-60A1 and M-60A3 tanks, as the US itself had a shortage of those tanks after replenishing Israeli stocks and then phasing out her own M-48A3 tanks. The South Koreans looked then to Germany to obtain a license to domestically produce Leopard 1s, but the South Korean MoD felt this would be counterproductive given the imminent start of production of the US M-1 Abrams and the German Leopard 2. In addition, licenses for domestic production of the M-60A1, M-60A3, M-1, or Leopard 1 or 2 would have been cost-prohibitive, as many components would have to be imported.

Therefore, the South Koreans undertook to produce their own up-to-date tanks. However, they had the help of General Dynamics in this venture, and the resulting K-1 (sometimes called the K-88, though this is incorrect and the result of a slip of the tongue of the South Korean president at the time) ended up looking like a smaller version of the M-1 Abrams. (This resulted in US troops in South Korea often calling the K-1 the "Baby M-1" or "Mini M-1.") The first K-1s entered limited service in 1987 and full production in 1988; first prototypes were available for field testing as early as 1983, however.

The fielding of the K-1 (and later the K-1A1) directly led the North Koreans to upgrade their T-62s (the Ch’onma-Ho variant), as well as develop a new tank (the P’okpoong-Ho); North Korean troops often refer to the K-1 and K-1A1 as the "Monster Tank" (when out of earshot of their officers; between the K-1, K-1A1, and the T-90Ss that the South Koreans recently bought, as well as American M-1A1s and M-1A2s, the North Korean tankers are reportedly a bit worried about going into combat against the South Koreans).

The K-1 is in fact easily mistaken for an M-1 Abrams, though when one gets closer one sees the size difference, and the South Koreans use a different camouflage pattern than the M-1 (though they still use the chemical weapon-resistant CARC paint). The layout is basically the same as the M-1 in layout, though the hull has a lower profile and the turret a much lower profile. The bustle rack of the K-1 extends almost all the way around the rear and sides of the turret, with the sides of the rack extending almost to the front of the turret. (This is a reflection of the tighter interior room – these days, South Korean soldiers aren’t that much smaller in stature than most American troops.) This large bustle rack also functions as sort of a faux bar-type armor. The K-1 is quite a bit lighter than the first-generation M-1, and does not nearly have as heavy armor as the M-1 (especially newer ones). The K-1 was therefore equipped with a German-designed 1200-horsepower MTU MB-871 Ka-501, though this engine is slated for an upgrade to a more compact and more powerful MTU MB-873 Ka-503 developing 1500 horsepower in the future. The transmission is fully automatic; it is designed by Allison for the original engine, but the new engine is coupled to a German ZF Friedrichschafen transmission.

The suspension of the K-1 uses six roadwheels. It is sort of interesting; roadwheels 1, 2, and 6 use a hydropneumatic suspension, while roadwheels 3, 4, and 5 use conventional torsion bars. This suspension gives a somewhat smoother ride than most tanks; however, the primary advantages are greater stability when the K-1 is firing on the move, and the ability to use the suspension to further increase the elevation and depression capabilities of the main gun and coaxial machinegun when the K-1 is halted. Because of this suspension, the main gun and coax are able to elevate and depress roughly twice as much when halted as it can when moving (+20° to -9.7°). This can be a handy advantage in some of the mountainous areas and steep valleys found in much of South Korea (and North Korea as well); it also allows the K-1 to "kneel," further lowering its silhouette when stationary. Treads are modified versions of those used on the original M-1 Abrams.

The K-1 uses a KM-68A1 main gun, which is the same as the US M-68E1 105mm rifled gun, but built under license in South Korea. The fire control system was designed by Hughes Aircraft, and includes a laser rangefinder and a powerful ballistic computer that can serve both the gunner and commander simultaneously. However, after 3450 K-1s had been built, Hyundai switched to sights and night vision equipment designed by Texas Instruments, which were superior, less complex, and used an eye-safe laser rangefinder. The commander also has his own laser rangefinder, and part of the ballistic computer’s capabilities is a program that helps the commander to plot supporting fires. Unlike the early M-1 versions, the K-1 has a CITS system for the commander as well as gunner’s sights, which allows for a hunter-killer capability that the M-1 of the time did not have and would not have until the advent of the M-1A2. The commander and gunner both had thermal imagers, image intensifiers, as well as conventional day telescopic sights, and the driver had a night vision block; essentially, the night vision suite of the K-1 was superior to that of an M-1 Abrams of the same period. The K-1 is equipped with an M-60E2-1 coaxial machinegun; the commander has auxiliary controls for both the main gun and the coax. The commander has a manually-rotating cupola equipped with a pintle-mounted K-6 machinegun (the South Korean-built version of the M-2HB, identical for game purposes), and the loader has a pintle-mounted M-60D (an M-60 machinegun with spade grips instead of a conventional stock and pistol grip trigger). The K-1 has six smoke grenade launchers on either side of the turret, and can lay a smoke screen by injecting diesel fuel into its exhaust. The K-1 has lugs on its front hull and final drives that allow the installation of a mine plow or mine roller.

Though the armor suite is still officially classified, its composition has been confirmed to be very similar to that of the M-1 Abrams, with Chobham over the frontal arc and spaced laminate on the sides, with conventional RHA in the rear. The crew compartments (driver and turret crew) are surrounded by 4-inch-thick aluminum alloy shells with Kevlar anti-spalling liners to increase protection. The armor protection is not as heavy as that of the M-1, and Hyundai has never used the DU mesh armor inserts that the HA variants of the M-1 uses. In original production, the K-1 did not have an automatic fire extinguishing system, so the crew had to manually pull fire extinguishing handles and/or use hand-held fire extinguishers. An automatic fire detection and extinguishing system was later retrofitted, though the manual system was retained as a backup. Though the K-1 does have an air conditioner as well as a heater, it does not have an NBC overpressure system, so the crew must wear NBC suits and hook up to a collective NBC system if such threats occur. Importantly, the K-1 has the same sort of blow-off panels in the turret bustle where ammunition is stored, and the ammunition is behind blast doors.

In addition to the ROK Army, the K-1 is used by the ROK Marines.

Though the first K-1A1s began production in 1996, production was so slow at first that they were not officially considered to be "in service" by the ROK Army until 2001. The primary difference between the K-1 and K-1A1 is the main gun, which on the K-1A1 is a 120mm KM-256 (a license produced US M-256 gun, which is in turn a modification of the German Rheinmetall L-44). The sights, ballistic computer, and laser rangefinders are also replaced by upgraded fire control equipment, in order to match the greater capabilities of the 120mm gun. The night vision equipment is also somewhat improved, and the main gun is better stabilized. This has increased the weight of the K-1A1 version in general; however, due to a more efficient transmission as well as some extra computers added to the engine, the K-1A1 actually has better fuel economy than the K-1. Due to the shape of the new gun mantlet, the coaxial machinegun is in a slightly different place than on the K-1 (it is mounted much higher than on the K-1). On the K-1A1, the entire sight system for the gunner is integrated, including the night vision sights and the day telescopic sight; on the K-1, the day telescopic sight is separate from the night sights.

The armor on the turret sides and front is somewhat improved on the K-1A1, giving the turret a more angular appearance than on the K-1. The joints between armor panels of the K-1A1 are also more rounded than on the K-1 to reduce the amount of shot traps. The glacis armor is also slightly improved, primarily through the use of more advanced Chobham armor. The K-1A1 also has a laser warning system, which lets the crew know when laser targeting beams are being directed at them. The K-1A1s smoke grenade launchers can be set to automatically trigger (usually one of the smoke grenade clusters on each side) when the K-1A1 is being lased.

In 1997, the Malaysians decided they needed a modern tank with better protection than their tanks had at the time (and better protection than their neighbors’ tanks, particularly those of Myanmar/Burma). However, they could not afford many of the advanced tanks in the world at the time. The first country they looked to was South Korea, as the Malaysians had long had an extensive diplomatic and trade relationship with the South Koreans. The Malaysians badly wanted to buy the K-1, but the cost was still too high for their budget, and the Malaysian Army felt that the K-1 was a bit heavy for their needs. Hyundai responded with the K-1M. This version of the K-1 differed primarily in the armor suite, which was less extensive than that of the standard K-1 but still better than any of their neighbors (and still had a version of Chobham armor), and different ammunition racks that stored less main gun ammunition, further decreasing the weight and cost. The K-1M carried more machinegun ammunition than the standard K-1, as the Malaysians felt that they faced a greater threat from infantrymen armed with RPGs and ATGMs. For this reason, the K-1M was also equipped with lugs for ERA on the glacis, turret front and sides, and hull sides. The air conditioning system was much more efficient than that of the K-1, but the K-1M would have no heating system for the crew. The K-1M did, however, have the laser warning system that had been designed for the K-1A1. Unfortunately for Hyundai, Bumar Labedy of Poland swooped in at the last moment with their PT-91 Twardy and undercut the price the South Koreans were asking for the K-1M, and the Malaysians quickly accepted the Poles’ offer. Only a few K-1M prototypes were actually built.

Twilight 2000 Notes: The primary ROK tank in the Twilight 2000 timeline was the K-1; though most of these had an automatic fire extinguishing system, only a few had been modified with the 1500-horsepower engine. Only about 25 K-1A1s were on hand for the Twilight War. In addition, some 50 K-1Ms were put into service with the ROK Army, as they were easier and quicker to produce and required less materials for production; these were designated K-1E1 by the ROK MoD.

Notes: Though the K-1 and K-1A1 tanks were considered by the South Korean MoD to be more than adequate to handle North Korean armor, the South Koreans nonetheless started design studies in 1995 for a successor to the K-1 and K-1A1. The primary motivation was financial – the K-1 and K-1A1 used a number of foreign-built and license-produced components, and this concerned the South Korean military supply experts in the case of war. In addition, some sales of the K-1 and K-1A1 had been blocked by one or more countries who did not want their technology to be supplied to countries they did not like, and the very important Chobham-type armor was actually built in the US and shipped to Hyundai for installation on the K-1 and K-1A1. There were also several new tank design wrinkles the South Koreans wanted to try, but could not be easily retrofitted to the K-1 series. A little over 90% of the Black Panther is designed by Hyundai and its subcontractors, and the tank is completely manufactured in South Korea. The ROK Army planned to eventually have 680 Black Panthers, but budget problems temporarily reduced this figure to 390, before the 680 total figure was re-approved. (The South Korean Government was quite shocked at the unexpectedly-high cost of the K-2, which is in real-life money almost twice that of the K-1A1, and rivals the real-world price of the latest M-1A2 SEP variants.) Low-rate initial production has already started as of the time I write this (mid-October 2009), with full-scale mass production to begin in 2011; deliveries to the ROK Army are expected to be completed by 2018. The K-2 may be the most advanced tank design ever put into production. (A downside, however, is that the K-2 has a lot of complex components that could break down, and presents the potential of a maintenance nightmare.)

In mid-2008, Hyundai Rotem signed a joint development contract with Otokar of Turkey to produce their own next-generation tank, the Altay. Most details of the Altay have yet to be released, but the Altay will be heavily based on the Black Panther. The Altay, however, will be built entirely in Turkey using several licensing agreements.

Though the design of the Black Panther is modular and it is designed to be easily upgraded and updated, the following information covers the versions of the K-2 that should roll off the production line under LRIP in 2009-2010 and when mass production begins in 2011. (Most projected upgrades are for an as-yet-undetermined date in the future.) The K-2 has virtually all of the latest developments in world tank design, as well as some novel new developments that are present on few or none of the world’s tank designs. The hull is similar in shape to that of the K-1A1, but the turret is entirely different – the rear and right side are higher and larger, while the left side has a large step in it, primarily because the space was simply not needed and it made the K-2 less expensive. The layout of the K-2 is otherwise conventional, with the commander on the right of the turret, the gunner’s hatch to the left of the turret, and the driver’s compartment on the front left of the hull. Unusually, the driver’s vision blocks are built into the hatch instead of being in a ring built into the hull; the middle vision block can be replaced by an IR vision block, and the driver has a backup camera with IR capability.

The K-2 uses a 1500-horsepower turbocharged diesel coupled to a fully-automatic transmission. (During initial testing, the engine, developed by South Korea’s Doosan Infracore, was not yet ready, and the three prototypes had a German MTU-890 engine installed during the first few months of tests.) The Doosan engine is reportedly quite similar to the MTU-890, which is why it could be effectively used for testing purposes. The Doosan engine allows the K-2 to accelerate quickly. The Doosan engine is quite compact, giving the designers room to incorporate a gas turbine 0.3kW APU; when the APU is on, the K-2’s thermal and acoustic signatures are almost nonexistent. The K-2 can ford up to 2.2 meters without preparation, of 4.4 meters with a snorkel kit, which takes about 30 minutes to erect. The turret and driver’s compartment are watertight, but the rest of the hull is deliberately designed to take in up to 440 liters of water to prevent excessive buoyancy (the K-2 is not meant to float). A powerful bilge pump can remove virtually all this water within 2 minutes.

The suspension of the K-2 can take the K-2 over obstacles 1.3 meters high at full speed, and climb and descend 60-degree slopes (forwards or backwards). The K-2 uses a suspension system called ISU (In-arm Suspension Unit). In short, each roadwheel can be individually controlled by the driver, allowing the K-2 to not only rock forward and backwards (increasing the K-2’s main gun elevation and depression capabilities when stationary), but to "kneel" until the hull floor is almost touching the ground, or lean towards a corner. The ISU also gives the K-2 a very smooth and comfortable ride, even over rough terrain, and contributes to the stability of main gun shots when the K-2 is in motion. Another advantage of this system is that the K-2 can engage low-flying, low-speed aircraft, either with its coaxial machinegun or with certain main gun rounds.

Armament of the K-2 is an indigenous-designed 120mm L/55 main gun, able to fire all known 120mm main gun rounds. The gun is fed by an autoloader, and the K-2 does not have a loader crewmember. As on the K-1 and K-1A1, the coaxial machinegun is an M-60E2-1, and the commander’s machinegun is a K-6. Though indigenously designed and produced, WIA (the manufacturer of the main gun) had considerable input from GIAT and the design team that produced the autoloader for the Leclerc; components, however, are not interchangeable, despite the similarity of design. The K-2’s autoloader is fed by a 16-round magazine contained in the turret bustle. On each side of the turret are seven smoke grenade launchers; unlike most modern tanks, these are not external clusters, but are instead built into the turret on the sides almost at the front.

Fire control is advanced; in addition to a modern ballistic computer and laser rangefinder for both the commander and gunner, the gunner also has a millimeter-wave radar that can not only detect targets, but also assist in aiming and providing input for the ballistic computer. The ballistic computer not only accesses a sensor for crosswind values at the K-2’s position, it checks the target position, and if possible from terrain features such as foliage, flags, blowing litter, etc, assesses the wind at the target. The ballistic computer can also access the radar to lock on to a target, and use this information along with the laser rangefinder and the gunner’s thermal imager to continually update target information until the gunner fires. The computer can also be set in a mode where it can override a fire order if the K-2’s and/or the target’s movement might make a shot temporarily likely to miss. This stops an accidental miss if the K-2, for example, suddenly hits a bump that the gunner is not prepared for. The computer will then alert the gunner when the shot is again likely to hit (generally a fraction of a second later).

The commander and gunner have separate sight units in armored heads atop the turret. While those of the gunner have some new wrinkles (such as the radar system), the commander’s sight unit is virtually identical to that of the K-1A1. The commander, though can receive input from the radar system (but cannot directly use it), and also benefits from a more advanced ballistic computer. He has override controls for the main gun as well as the coaxial machinegun. Another unusual feature is that the commander can drive the K-2 (in a more limited fashion) in an emergency – and the gunner can also do so, by using simple auxiliary controls and an LCD screen. In essence, the K-2, in an extreme emergency, can actually be operated by one man and fight with only that one crewmember – though operations will, of course, be seriously degraded. Even the driver can do this; the driver has a switch that commands the computer, fire control system, and main gun to find targets on its own and fire upon them, with the computer controlling the rotation of the turret and elevation and depression of the main gun. (Makes you wonder how long it will be before we have robotic main battle tanks!) When the main gun is operating in this manner, it communicates with other friendly vehicles with the appropriate equipment to avoid fratricide; in addition, like some modern armies, the South Koreans are in the process of installing IFF transmitters on their vehicles.

The composite armor that the K-2 uses over its frontal arc and the turret sides is a closely-guarded secret, but is believed to be similar to the advanced Chobham-type armors used on the latest generation of the M-1A2 Abrams; the armor is, however, lighter than that of the Abrams, while offering almost the same protection level (though the K-2’s armor does not include the DU mesh layer that is used on M-1A2s these days). Tests have been conducted in which the armor was able to defeat an APFSDS-T round fired from the same main gun as used on the K-2 at typical tank engagement ranges. The K-2 also has lugs for ERA (typically 3^rd-generation) on its glacis, hull sides, turret front and sides, and the forward one-quarter of the turret roof. The K-2 also has a soft-kill-type active defense system, which has detectors for targeting lasers, jammers for ATGM guidance systems (on a roll of 12+ on a d20, the difficulty to the ATGM gunner’s difficulty is increased by one level; outstanding success indicates that the incoming missile pre-detonates before it can hit the K-2). A rotating IRCM emitter atop the turret on a low post emit pulsed IR beams to decoy IR-guided munitions; their effectiveness is the same as listed for the electro-optical jammer above, and both have a 360-degree range of protection, as well as 180-degrees upwards. The detectors also can automatically fire the smoke grenade launchers, which may use conventional smoke, WP smoke, or IR-obscuring smoke (the most common type of grenade expected to be used in the K-2’s launchers). The millimeter band radar also functions as a detector for incoming rounds; at ranges of 100 meters or less, it can also detect human beings. To complete the package, the K-2 has IR shrouding for its exhaust and is painted in radar-absorbent paint. The K-2 is also equipped with a radar-warning receiver and a small measure of ECM.

The K-2 is also equipped for the modern electronic battlefield, having a C4I/Battle Management System suite that uses a computer and special radios to connect it to other friendly units on the battlefield and allow a battle situation to be continually updated with friendly and enemy positions. This system also has a mapping system and a land navigation that includes GPS with an inertial positioning backup/supplement. This system is STANAG 4579-compliant (meaning it can interoperate with Battle Management Systems used or designed by most NATO countries); this allows it to communicate with the BMS of the M-1A2 Abrams, Stryker, and projected future versions of the Bradley used by their US allies. The system also includes an IFF emitter/receiver. The K-2’s computers system also has an interesting feature: it allows the K-2’s commander or gunner to communicate with and control light UAVs and the small scouting robots that are coming into increasing use today. (Rumors say that the K-2’s standard equipment will include a small hand-launched UAV, though I have not included this in the price below.) As is usual for a vehicle equipped with such a system, the commander, gunner, and on the K-2, the driver, have a pair of LCD screens to help them manage their equipment and the tank in general.

Even though Hyundai has yet to even start full-rate production of the K-2, the South Korean MoD has already announced an upgrade program for the K-2, to commence after the K-2 has been in service from 2-4 years (which would put it somewhere in the neighborhood of 2012-2014). The version of the K-2 that will result is currently being called the K-2 PIP, but it is expected that this vehicle will eventually be designated the K-2A1. I will use the K-2 PIP designation here.

That said, the components of the K-2 PIP program have not been finalized yet. Some are largely agreed upon by the ROK Army and the South Korean MoD and some may or not be included; the PIP program is also likely to be carried out in phases rather than doing a large, time-consuming unitary upgrade that would stand a good chance of having to be delayed. A phased upgrade program would also fit with the highly-modular construction of the K-2. Below, I have put together the most likely upgrades that will be undertaken, and then included one other possible upgrade in separate table entries.

The likely upgrades include an upgrade in the suspension. Part of this is relatively minor (especially in game terms): a change from the semi-active ISU to a fully-active ISU. In simple terms, this makes the K-2’s ISU less mechanically complex and more quickly adjustable. This upgrade goes hand-in-hand with the second part of the suspension upgrade: a Terrain Scanning System. The suspension’s TSS employs a unit (which could be radar, IR, or ultrasound-based) that has a sensor mounted low in the front hull and looks about 50 meters in front of the K-2. The unit has a computer that can look as the terrain, give the suspension an ability to anticipate what the individual roadwheels will need to do to cope with the terrain, and greatly help smooth out the ride. It would also aid in stabilization when the K-2 is firing on the move.

The PIP program also includes armor improvements, using the new NERA (Non-Explosive Reactive Armor) technology. NERA uses a classified composition of rubber with a specific (and also classified) composition and consistency, sandwiched between light metal plates. NERA has almost no effect against KE penetrators (acting as a mere 4 points of extra armor against these projectiles), but against HE and HEAT-type rounds, the protection is dramatic – the equivalent of an extra 60 points of armor against these rounds. In addition, NERA is only about a quarter of the weight and half the cost of ERA. (In addition, the lack of the use of explosives in NERA means that it could also be used on soft-skinned vehicles.) Finally, since there are no explosives to detonate, a NERA tile is not destroyed on that first hit by an incoming round – studies have shown that a NERA tile can remain effective after 6-12 hits (I’ll use the figure of 8 hits for game purposes). And just to round things out, a tandem warhead will not destroy a NERA tile so that the main charge can penetrate the vehicle’s skin – in game terms, each individual warhead in a tandem warhead fired against NERA is resolved as a separate attack, with that same NERA tile getting in the way of penetration. As NERA gives virtually no additional protection against KE projectiles, the K-2 PIP will retain and probably use the ability to mount 3^rd-generation ERA – NERA can actually be mounted directly below ERA tiles, without an ERA explosion damaging the NERA tile underneath.

Finally, the K-2 PIP will employ a hard-kill active protection system – it is rumored that the South Koreans have put together Russian, Israeli, and US technology and ideas to come with their hard-kill system. The system developed by the South Koreans launches special rounds in the path of the missile that quickly break up into a cloud of tungsten pellets, destroying the missile before it can hit the tank. 16 of these rounds are available, and they are 75% likely to destroy the incoming missile about 10 meters from the K-2. This system protects the K-2 against attacks from any angle. Unlike currently-employed hard-kill active defenses, the South Korean system has a small chance of protecting the K-2 against large-caliber rounds (small rounds like autocannon rounds, Skeet-type EFPs, or cluster bomb submunitions are too small to be reliably detected). The chance that the system will be able to counter such a round is only 5%. The hard-kill system would use the K-2’s existing sensor suite to detect incoming rounds – the millimeter radar and part of the computer system in particular were designed with the addition of a hard-kill active defense system in mind.

Two upgrades are described by most sources as within the realm of possibility for the future, but unlikely to actually take place. The ROK Army seriously considered using a 140mm main gun based on an experimental Rheinmetall design instead of the 120mm L/55 gun that is currently used on the K-2. They eventually decided to go with the 120mm gun because of the lack of diversity of ammunition developed for the 140mm gun (forcing the South Koreans to develop a range of ammunition themselves), the reduction in ammunition capacity of the K-2 due to the larger rounds, and the fact that potential enemies of the ROK have almost no vehicles or other targets that a 120mm L/55 gun cannot handle. Nonetheless, the K-2 was designed with that possibility in mind, as the 140mm main gun and the associated modifications can be installed on the K-2 with a minimum amount of work.

Another possibility for the future, described as being very unlikely, is the replacement of the current 120mm L/55 with a 120mm L/55 main gun using ETC (Electrothermal-Chemical) propellant. It is believed that this upgrade will never be fielded on the K-2, as ETC main gun technology is not projected to be mature enough for reliable use on combat vehicles for about a decade in the future. Of course, those of you who know me know I could not resist statting that one out!

Twilight 2000 Notes: The K-2 does not exist in the Twilight 2000 timeline – indeed, design work on the K-2 never started in the Twilight 2000 timeline.